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Calligraphy Script
Vulgar Style Script
Sutizi(vulgar style script) refers to popular scripts that are prevalent among folk people but against the written styles during different periods. In opposition to Sutizi is Zhengtizi(standard style script).
After Chinese characters developed into Zhuanwen(seal script), character components became relatively fixed after the overall straightening; when they developed from Zhuanweninto Lishu(official script) and then Kaishu(regular script), the shape of character components was further fixed; in this way, the way of writing Chinese characters had its own rule. Characters that conform to the rule were Zhengtizi, while those go against the rule were Sutizi.
Compared with Zhengtizi,Sutizi is characterized by change of strokes or replace of character components, and some Sutizi are coinages. Because many Sutizi had fewer strokes than Zhengtizi, and were more convenient to use, they were handed down from history, and some of them were used as simplified characters to replace the original complicated characters during the simplification of Chinese characters in the history.
Many Sutizi appeared in tablets of the past dynasties, which even influenced famous calligraphers.Sutiziwas also often seen in the rubber stamps of dramas and novels in the Song Dynasty (960-1279), and many of these characters are even in use today.The Simplification Plan of Chinese Characters, published in 1955, authorized some Sutizi as regular scripts, and at the same time abolished a great many Sutizi, which played an active role in standardization of Chinese characters. In this way,Sutizi has less opportunity to appear in formal occasions.
Regular Script
Though Kaishu(regular script) developed to a certain level in the Jin Dynasty (265-420), theKaiworks of that period still bore traces of Li calligraphy. The Longzang Temple Tablet and the Epitaph of the Tomb of Beautiful Lady Dong show that Kaishu had developed to a mature stage during the Sui Dynasty (581-618). But it did not achieve its zenith until the Tang Dynasty (618-907).
Kaishu is regular with a tight structure and fluent strokes. Calligraphers in the history produced many masterpieces that have been handed down. Ouyang Xun, Liu Gongquan, Yan Zhenqin and Zhao Meng developed Kaishu to its peak with their unique styles, and they were called Four Masters of Kaishu.
Because Kaishu is easier to write and recognize than Li calligraphy, it has taken the place of the latter and become a general font ever since the Wei and Jin dynasties. In the Song Dynasty, the development of typography helped createSongti- a kind of calligraphy specially for typing based on Kaishu. Nowadays, calligraphies such as Songti, Fangsongti, Heiti and so on, which are for typeset in computer and other printed materials, are all different applications of Kaishu.
Cursive Hand
Caoshu(cursive hand) is characterized by sketchy, simplified forms of characters, often distorted or exaggerated to achieve an internal rhythmic appearance within the compositions of characters. In theory, any character can be written in the style ofCaoshu, for instance many course characters appeared in inscriptions on bronze wares. However,Caoshuin literature refers to a specific style developed from QinLi(official script in the Qin Dynasty), formed around the Western Han Dynasty (206BC-8AD) and prevalent in the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220).
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"Gushi Tie" by Zhang Xu |
Historical records show that Caoshu came into being in the pre-Qin period due to the fact that the fierce competition among various states made them often keep alert of any move of other states, which put a high demand on the communication.
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"Zixu Tie" by Huai Su |
Caoshu in the early period retained much feature of Lishu and was called Zhangcao(a coarse style formed by breaking up the forms of Lishu). From the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220) to the Wei (220-265) and Jin (265-420) dynasties,Caoshu got rid of the trace of Lishu strokes, and employed a large number of running strokes, and was called Jincao(the modern cursive hand). By the Tang Dynasty (618-907),Caoshu developed further, was written in a lively and vigorous way and was called Kuangcao(crazy cursive hand).
Because Caoshu uses lots of running strokes and only has the outline of the characters, it is illegible to most readers and affects its function of communication. Therefore, though Caoshu came into being comparatively early, it didn't become in written form within a state, while Zhuanshu(seal script) and Lishu(official script) could not be written hastily, hence Caoshu emerged. one of the calligraphies in general use. However, it has been always loved by many people. Famous Caoshu calligraphers include Zhang Zhi, Zhang Xu, Huai Su and so on.
Running Hand
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| Preface to the Orchid Pavilion Collection by Wang Xizhi [reproduced by Chu Suiliang |
Xingshu(running hand or semi-cursive script) was something between Lishu(the regular script)and Caoshu(the cursive scripts) in the initial period and now is between Kaishu(the standard script)and Caoshu. No matter which type, when carefully written with distinguishable strokes, the Xingshu characters will be very close to the regular style; when swiftly executed, they will approach the Caoshu. Chinese masters have always compared with vivid aptness the three styles of writing --Kaishu, XingshuandCaoshu-- to people standing, walking and running.
Xingshu is a writing style looser than regular style. This style was created by Liu Desheng in the reigns of Emperors Huan and Ling of the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD). At the very beginning, it was called Xingya, and later on became an independent form.
Xingshu is considered more abstract and artistic. Writing Xingshu characters is done more quickly than Kaishubut executed with no less care.Xingshu is not as messy as Caoshu, nor as neat as Kaishu. In general, it is convenient and highly practical for writing.
Masterpieces of Xingshu include Preface to the Orchid Pavilion Collection by Wang Xizhi, which was reputed as No.1Xingshu Work. Unfortunately, the original was not handed down, and the one we see today is only a copy of the original work. Due to the high level of the copier, the copy retains the beautiful, neat style.
Famous Xingshu calligraphers included Cai Xiang, Su Dongpo, Huang Tingjian and Mi Fu in the Song Dynasty (960-1279), who were called Four Masters of the Song Dynasty. In the Ming (1368-1644)) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties and modern times, many calligraphers good at Xingshu came into being.
Official Script
Lishu(official script) is developed from wild writing of Liuwen,a kind of calligraphy that is round in shape and has too many strokes. Because writing in Liuwen is time-consuming, people usually tended to write a little more wildly and changed orderly arced strokes into relatively flat and straight in informal occasions.Li calligraphy came into being in the Qin State of the late Warring States Period (475-221BC) and gradually became popular.
Lishu includes three types -- Qin Liof the Qin Dynasty (221-206BC), Han Liof the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD) and Bafen calligraphy. Qin Li refers to the simplified characters adopted for use during the reign of Qin Emperor Shihuang. By the Han Dynasty, the calligraphy in daily life was Lishu but its shape and handwriting got much development.Bafen calligraphy refers to the 80% style, which contracts the lesser seal calligraphy by a subtraction of 20%.
In fact, the simplified Chinese characters popular in the Qin Dynasty emerged before Qin Emperor Shihuang unified the eight calligraphic styles. According to archeological findings, characters on some wooden plates and bamboo pieces from the Warring States Period and weapons, and lacquers and potteries from the Qin Dynasty were simpler than theZhuan(seal script). The shape of the Chinese characters changed from round to square and the strokes tend to be wave-shaped. This was the beginning of Lishu.
The emergence of Lishuis an important reform in Chinese calligraphy. It ended the 3,000-year history of archaic Chinese characters and replaced them with a simpler writing form. Signs and designs almost disappeared, and characters became solely symbols.
Lesser Seal Script
Xiaozhuan(lesser seal script), also called Qinzhuan, is a calligraphy developed from Dazhuan(greater seal script). It emerged in the Qin State in the late Warring States Period (475-221BC), and was prevalent in the Qin Dynasty (221-206BC) and early Western Han Dynasty (206BC-8AD).
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| Qinzhuan" calligraphy on stone |
Cultural relics of the Qin Dynasty unearthed show that Xiaozhuan was gradually involved from Dazhuan, and the two do not have clear demarcation of time periods. Some characters of Dazhuan were comparatively complicated and difficult to write, characters became more simplified starting from the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476BC), and the pace of simplification obviously picked up. Persons like Li Si, the Minister of Qin Emperor Shihuang, simply collected and arranged the characters of Xiaozhuan, set Xiaozhuan as a standard calligraphy and popularized it in the whole society.
Examples of Xiaozhuan of this period are Taishan Keshi(stone inscription on the Mount Tai) and Langyatai Keshi(stone inscription on Langya Terrace).Elucidations of the Signs and Explications of the Graphs, compiled by Xu Shen, included 9,353 Xiaozhuan characters. Though Xiaozhuan did not emerge early, it boasts a large number, plays a special role in the development history of Chinese characters and is the bridge between ancient characters and modern characters.
Greater Seal Script
Zhouwenis also called Dazhuan(greater seal script).Elucidations of the Signs and Explications of the Graphs, compiled by Xu Shen, included more than 220 Zhouwen characters. Modern scholar Wang Guowei thought that these characters featured balanced left and right parts and a bit complicated structures.
Shiguwen is the representative of Dazhuan. During the Sui (581-618) and Tang (618-907) dynasties, ten stone tablets were found in Tianxing County (present-day Fengxiang County in Shaanxi Province). Textual researches show that these stone tablets were from the late years of the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476BC) and the early years of the Warring States Period (475-221BC).Shiguwen on these tablets were all poetry paying a tribute to Emperor Qin.
Three stones carved with inscriptions were discovered in the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127), and contents were all malediction from the King of the Qin State to the King of the Chu State. People in the later generations called these inscriptions asZhouchuwen(Script of Malediction to Chu).Zhouwen,Shiguwen,Zhouchuwen and part of inscriptions on bronze in the Qin State all belonged to the same style and are collectively called as Zhouwen orDazhuan.Zhouwen, characterized by shapely strokes and compact structures, was officially prescribed standard script of that time and had been used for a long period.
Scripts on Tortoise Shells and Animal Bones
The earliest Chinese written language appeared in the Shang Dynasty (17th- 11thcentury BC). At that time, people believed in ghosts and practiced divination on important occasions. They inscribed divination words on tortoise shells or animal bones, and painted them red to symbolize good luck or black to symbolize potential disasters. The words were inscribed with knives. Some of them are big, some are small, some are complicated and some are simple, but they are all well defined.
Examples of shell and bone writing were not found until Emperor Guangxu's reign during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), thousands of years after they were made. The discovery occurred in Anyang, Henan Province, which was the Shang Dynasty. In 1899, the banks of the Huangshui River in Henan Province collapsed, and many tortoise shells with carved patterns on them were revealed. At first, people regarded the shells as dragon bones and used them as medicine. The following year, a merchant named Wang Yirong developed and interest in the shells, and went to Henan to collect more of them. Later a scholar, Liu Er, continued the collection. They collected more than 5,000 pieces, which were given the name of Jiaguwen(scripts on tortoise shells and animal bones).
Philologists, who subsequently researched more than 100,000 shell and bone pieces, discovered the structure of Jiaguwenhad changed into legible characters complete with recognized signs. The shell and bone writing had shown a certain degree of maturity. Of the more than 4,500 distinct characters in these pieces, some 1,700 have been identified.
Six Types of Writing
Liushu refers to the six types of writing, namely Xiangxing(pictographic),Zhishi(indicative),Huiyi(ideographic),Xingsheng(phonographic),Zhuanzhu(switching explanations) and Jiajie(phonetically borrowed).
Xiangxing(pictographic) characters are picture-like scripts which are easily to be associated with the concrete things or abstract things they indicate. For instance, sun is written as ; eyebrow,  (eye  and brow ); and so on.
Zhishi(indicative)refers to the type that employs a special sign to indicate an object or a concept. The indicative sign is either added to a part of a single-element character or a special location in a sign that indicates an object. For instance, the character上(above) has a horizontal stroke to indicate the horizontal line, and it indicates the concept of above the horizontal line.
Huiyi(ideographic) combines two or more single-element pictograms or indicative characters that can match each other to indicate a new meaning. For instance, the character  (follow) combines two  (person) to mean that one person follows the other.
Xingsheng(phonographic) characters are composed of two components, with one indicating the sound and one, the meaning.
Zhuanzhu(switching explanations) creates a new character from an old one to differ between words with the same meaning but with slightly different pronunciation.
Jiajie(phonetically borrowed) borrows a character from a word that is pronounced equally but has a totally different meaning.
Many scholars of literature believe that only the first four types are the ways of forming Chinese characters and the last two are the methods of using Chinese characters.
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